The Forced Returns of Polish Citizens: Cross-Border Transfers on the Polish-German Border in the Context of the Discretionary Powers of the Border Guards

• Autorzy: Maryla Klajn
• Języki publikacji: EN

Abstrakty

EN

The Schengen area tends to be commonly misconstrued in the public perception as being 'border-free', defined by the unrestrained mobility of people, goods and capital. In reality the so-called 'internal borders' are still marked by a fervour of activities, conducted by the various national state agencies created for the purpose of territorial protection. Identity and migration checks - which often strikingly resemble pre-Schengen border checks - special crime-prevention tasks and transnational operations of police-type forces, detention and the unrelenting transfers of asylum-seekers and forced returns of illegalised migrants (also of EU nationals) are only a few among the many responsibilities of the various border-guard formations. This paper, based on data from fieldwork with the street-level Polish Border Guards working in the Intra-Schengen border region on the Polish-German border, analyses the impact of different levels of institutional discretion: official, local and individual, with a particular focus on the officers' behaviour and decision-making and on the role of discretion within the policy implementation of a specific procedure. Analysing the phenomenon of the forced returns (deportations) of EU nationals within the Schengen area, this paper exposes the nature of the little-known practice of cross-border transfers. It focuses on the phenomenon of a forced return of Polish citizens from Germany, specifically on the micro-level moment of transfer of custody between the German Federal Police (Bundespolizei) into the hands of the Polish Border Guards (Straż Graniczna) on the Polish-German border, looking at the procedural variations and the decision-making of the officers, especially in the context of its street-level echelon and its practical contribution to the concept of deportability. (original abstract)

Słowa kluczowe

EN

Border Guard; Schengen Agreement; Border crossing; Resettlements of people; Migrant crisis

PL

Straż Graniczna; Układ z Schengen; Przejścia graniczne; Przesiedlenia ludności; Kryzys migracyjny

• Czasopismo: Central and Eastern European Migration Review
• Rocznik: 2021
• Tom: 10
• Numer: nr 1
• Strony: 119--142

Twórcy

autor

Maryla Klajn

• Leiden University, the Netherlands

Bibliografia

• Aas K. F. (2011). 'Crimmigrant' Bodies and Bona Fide Travelers: Surveillance, Citizenship and Global Governance. Theoretical Criminology 15(3): 331-346.
• Aas K. F. (2014). Bordered Penality: Precarious Membership and Abnormal Justice. Punishment and Society 16(5): 520-541.
• Aas K., Bosworth M. (2013). The Borders of Punishment: Migration, Citizenship and Social Exclusion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Anderson B. (2010). Migration, Immigration Controls and the Fashioning of Precarious Workers. Work, Employment and Society 24(2): 300-317.
• Anderson B., Gibney M., Paoletti E. (2011). Citizenship, Deportation and the Boundaries of Belonging. Citizenship Studies 15(5): 547-563.
• Armat M. R., Assarroudi A., Rad M., Sharifi H., Heydari A. (2018). Inductive and Deductive: Ambiguous Labels in Qualitative Content Analysis. The Qualitative Report 23(1): 219-221.
• Assarroudi A., Heshmati Nabavi F., Armat M. R., Ebadi A., Vaismoradi M. (2018). Directed Qualitative Content Analysis: The Description and Elaboration of its Underpinning Methods and Data Analysis Process. Journal of Research in Nursing 23(1): 42-55.
• Babakova O. (2018). Socio-Economic Aspects of Migrations in Poland (1989-2018), in: J. Kucharczyk, G. Mesežnikov (eds), Phantom Menace: The Politics and Policies of Migration in Central and Eastern Europe, pp. 148-168. Bratislava: Institute for Public Affairs/Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung.
• Bender S. W., Arrocha W. F. (eds) (2017). Compassionate Migration and Regional Policy in the Americas. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Bessa C. F., García J. A. B. (2018). 'Profiles' of Deportability: Analyzing Spanish Migration Control Policies from a Neocolonial Perspective, in: K. Carrington, R. Hogg, J. Scott, M. Sozzo (eds), The Palgrave Handbook of Criminology and the Global South, pp. 775-795. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Bigo D. (2002). Security and Immigration: Toward a Critique of the Governmentality of Unease. Alternatives: Global, Local, Political 27(1): 63-92.
• Bigo D., Guild E. (eds) (2005). Controlling Frontiers: Free Movement Into and Within Europe. Aldershot: Ashgate.
• Bleiker C. (2019) Deportation Laws in Germany - What You Need to Know. Online: https://www.dw.com/en/deportation-laws-in-germany-what-you-need-to-know/... (accessed: 16.06.2021).
• Borrelli L. M. (2019). The Border Inside: Organizational Socialization of Street-Level Bureaucrats in the European Migration Regime. Journal of Borderland Studies, 16 October, doi: 10.1080/08865655.2019.1676815.
• Bosworth M., Kaufman E. (2011). Foreigners in a Carceral Age: Immigration and Imprisonment in the United States. Stanford Law and Policy Review 22(2): 429-454.
• Brouwer J. (2020). Detection, Detention, Deportation: Criminal Justice and Migration Control through the Lens of Crimmigration. Leiden: University of Leiden, unpublished PhD thesis.
• Brouwer J., van der Woude M., van der Leun J. (2018). (Cr)immigrant Framing in Border Areas: Decision-Making Processes of Dutch Border Police Officers. Policing and Society 28(4): 448-463.
• Brzozowski J. (2011). Return Migration of Young Poles: Implications for the Regional Labor Markets, in: C. Larsen, R. Hasberg, A. Schmid, M. Bittner, F. Clement (eds), Measuring Geographical Mobility in Regional Labour Market Monitoring: State of the Art and Perspectives, pp. 142-151. Munich: Rainer Hampp Verlag.
• Camarota S. A. (2017). Deportation vs the Cost of Letting Illegal Immigrants Stay. Washington DC: Center for Immigration Studies.
• Checkel J. T., Katzenstein P. J. (eds). (2009). European Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Coniglio N. D., Brzozowski J. (2018). Migration and Development at Home: Bitter or Sweet Return? Evidence from Poland. European Urban and Regional Studies 25(1): 85-105.
• Cooperative Project 'Welcome' (2019). Deportation and Termination of Your Stay in Germany. Online https://w2bw.de/en/willkommen/aufenthaltsbeendigung_und_abschiebung (accessed: 7 May 2021).
• Cornelius W. A., Tsuda T., Martin P. L., Hollifield J. F. (2004). Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
• Coutin S. B. (2015). Deportation Studies: Origins, Themes and Directions. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 41(4): 671-681.
• Czerniejewska I., Goździak E. M. (2014). 'Aiding Defeated Migrants': Institutional Strategies to Assist Polish Returned Migrants. International Migration 52(1): 87-99.
• De Genova N. P. (2002). Migrant 'Illegality' and Deportability in Everyday Life. Annual Review of Anthropology 31(1): 419-447.
• De Genova N. (2013). Spectacles of Migrant 'Illegality': The Scene of Exclusion, the Obscene of Inclusion. Ethnic and Racial Studies 36(7): 1180-1198.
• De Genova N. (2018). The Deportation Power. Radical Philosophy 2(03): 23-27.
• De Giorgi A. (2010). Immigration Control, Post-Fordism, and Less Eligibility: A Materialist Critique of the Criminalization of Immigration across Europe. Punishment and Society 12(2): 147-167.
• Dekkers T. J. M., van der Woude M. A. H., Koulish R. (2019). Objectivity and Accountability in Migration Control Using Risk Assessment Tools. European Journal of Criminology 16(2): 237-254.
• Dostál P. (2018). Changing European Union: The Schengen Agreement, in: T. Havlíček, M. Jeřábek, J. Dokoupil (eds), Borders in Central Europe after the Schengen Agreement, pp. 15-35. Cham: Springer.
• Dörrenbächer N. (2017). Europe at the Frontline: Analysing Street-Level Motivations for the Use of European Union Migration Law. Journal of European Public Policy 24(9): 1328-1347.
• Dworkin R. (2013). Taking Rights Seriously. London, New York: Bloomsbury Academic.
• Ellerman A. (2006). Street-Level Democracy: How Immigration Bureaucrats Manage Public Opposition. West European Politics 29(2): 293-309.
• Ellerman A. (2009). States Against Migrants: Deportation in Germany and the United States. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Fabini G. (2017). Managing Illegality at the Internal Border: Governing through 'Differential Inclusion' in Italy. European Journal of Criminology 14(1): 46-62.
• Fabini G. (2019). Internal Bordering in the Context of Undeportability: Border Performances in Italy. Theoretical Criminology 23(2): 175-193.
• Fanning B., Kloc-Nowak W., Lesińska M. (2020). Polish Migrant Settlement Without Political Integration in the United Kingdom and Ireland: A Comparative Analysis in the Context of Brexit and Thin European Citizenship. International Migration 59(1): 263-280.
• Fassin D. (2011). Policing Borders, Producing Boundaries. The Governmentality of Immigration in Dark Times. Annual Review of Anthropology 40: 213-226.
• Fassin D. (ed.) (2015). At the Heart of the State. London: Pluto Press.
• Fekete L. (2005). The Deportation Machine: Europe, Asylum and Human Rights. Race and Class 47(1): 64-78.
• Follis K. S. (2012). Building Fortress Europe: The Polish-Ukrainian Frontier. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
• Fomina J., Kucharczyk J. (2018). From Politics of Fear to Securitization Policies? Poland in the Face of Migration Crisis, in: J. Kucharczyk, G. Mesežnikov (eds), Phantom Menace: The Politics and Policies of Migration in Central and Eastern Europe, pp. 185-203. Bratislava: Institute for Public Affairs, Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung.
• Franko K. (2019). The Crimmigrant Other: Migration and Penal Power. Abingdon: Routledge.
• Gelsthorpe L., Padfield N. (2003). 'Introduction', in: L. Gelsthorpe, N. Padfield (eds), Exercising Discretion. Decision-Making in the Criminal Justice System and Beyond, pp. 1-28. London: Routledge.
• Gęborek E. (2013). Zakaz Wjazdu do Niemiec. Online: https://www.eporady24.pl/zakaz_wjazdu_do_niemiec,pytania,21,148,7961.html (accessed: 7 May 2021).
• Gibney M. J., Hansen R. (2003). Deportation and the Liberal State: The Forcible Return of Asylum Seekers and Unlawful Migrants in Canada, Germany and the United Kingdom. Working Paper No. 77. Geneva: UNHCR Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit.
• Golash-Boza T., Navarro Y. C. (2018a). 'My Whole Life is in the USA': Dominican Deportees' Experiences of Isolation, Precarity, and Resilience, in: S. Khosravi (ed.), After Deportation. Global Ethics, pp. 149-168. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Golash-Boza T., Navarro Y. C. (2018b). Triple Jeopardy for Dominican Deportees. NACLA Report on the Americas 50(2): 177-182.
• Golash-Boza T., Navarro Y. C. (2019). Life after Deportation. Contexts 18(2): 30-35.
• Goździak E. M. (2014). Polish Migration after the Fall of the Iron Curtain. International Migration 52(1): 1-3.
• Graneheim U. H., Lindgren B. M., Lundman B. (2017). Methodological Challenges in Qualitative Content Analysis: A Discussion Paper. Nurse Education Today 56(1): 29-34.
• Gundhus H. O. (2017). Discretion as an Obstacle: Police Culture, Change, and Governance in a Norwegian Context. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 11(3): 258-272.
• Hasselberg I. (2016). Enduring Uncertainty: Deportation, Punishment and Everyday Life. New York: Berghahn.
• Hiemstra N. (2016). Deportation and Detention: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, Multi-Scalar Approaches, and New Methodological Tools. Migration Studies 4(3): 433-446.
• Hong K. (2017). The Absurdity of Crime-Based Deportation. University of California Davis Law Review 50(5): 2067-2147.
• Kalir B. (2014). The Deportation Mess: A Bureaucratic Muddling of State Fantasies. Online: http://bordercriminologies.law.ox.ac.uk/deportation-fantasies/ (accessed: 8 May 2021).
• Kalir B. (2017). Between 'Voluntary' Return Programs and Soft Deportation: Sending Vulnerable Migrants in Spain Back 'Home', in: Z. Vathi, R. King (eds), Return Migration and Psychosocial Wellbeing, pp. 56-71. Abingdon: Routledge.
• Kalir B. (2018). 'I Do My Work But I Don't Agree With the Law': Police Agents Managing Deportation in Madrid, Spain, in: Proceedings of the 2018 American Accounting Association Annual Meeting August, pp. 4-8. Online: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3371417 (accessed: 21 May 2021).
• Kalir B. (2019). Departheid: The Draconian Governance of Illegalized Migrants in Western States. Conflict and Society 5(1): 19-40.
• Kalir B., Achermann C., Rosset D. (2019). Re-Searching Access: What Do Attempts at Studying Migration Control Tell Us About the State? Social Anthropology 27(1): 5-16.
• Kalir B., Wissink L. (2016). The Deportation Continuum: Convergences Between State Agents and NGO Workers in the Dutch Deportation Field. Citizenship Studies 20(1): 34-49.
• Kanstroom D. (2007). Deportation Nation: Outsiders in American History. Cambridge, MA, London: Harvard University Press.
• Klaus W. (2019). Deportizens - In the Pursuit of Theoretical Explanations Behind Forced Removals of Ex-Prisoners, paper presented to the conference 'Unwanted Citizens of EU Member States', Liverpool, 27 August.
• Klaus W. (2017a). Closing Gates to Refugees: The Causes and Effects of the 2015 'Migration Crisis' on Border Management in Hungary and Poland. Rocznik Instytutu Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej 15(3): 11-34.
• Klaus W. (2017b). Security First: The New Right-Wing Government in Poland and its Policy towards Immigrants and Refugees. Surveillance and Society 15(3/4): 523-528.
• Klaus W. (2020). How Does Crimmigration Unfold in Poland? Between Securitization Introduced to Polish Migration Policy by its Europeanization and Polish Xenophobia, in: R. Koulish, M. van der Woude (eds), Crimmigrant Nations, pp. 298-314. New York: Fordham University Press.
• Korvensyrjä A. E., Osa R., Feliziani C. (2017). Culture of Deportation: Criminalisation of Migration 'Made in Germany' and the Making of EU Border Policy. Online: http://cultureofdeportation.org (accessed: 8 May 2021).
• Korvensyrjä A. E., Osa R., Jassey D. (2019). Culture of Deportation: Surviving the German Asylum System, in: N. Süder Happelmann, F. Zólyom (eds), Ankersentrum (Surviving in the Ruinous Ruin, pp. 1-19. Berlin: Archive Books.
• Kocan Р. (2014). The Current Situation Along Poland's Eastern Border. Іstoriko-polіtičnі problemi sučasnogo svіtu (27-28): 231-236.
• Lesińska M., Okólski M. (eds) (2013). Współczesne Polskie Migracje: Strategie, Skutki Społeczne, Reakcja Państwa. Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego.
• Lesińska M., Okólski M., Slany K., Solga B. (2014). Dekada Członkostwa Polski w UE: Społeczne Skutki Emigracji Polaków po 2004 Roku. Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego.
• Leyro S. P., Stageman D. L. (2018). Crimmigration, Deportability and the Social Exclusion of Noncitizen Immigrants. Migration Letters 15(2): 255-265.
• Lipsky M. (2010). Street-Level Bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Service. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
• Matthies K. (2019). Niemieckie Prawo Administracyjne. Online: https://www.adwokatniemcy.net/prawo-administracyjne/ (accessed: 8 May 2021).
• Maynard-Moody S., Musheno M. (2012). Social Equities and Inequities in Practice: Street-Level Workers as Agents and Pragmatists. Public Administration Review 72(S1): S16-S23.
• Mazurek T., Barwiński M. (2009). Polish Eastern Border as an External European Union Border. Państwowy Instytut Naukowy - Instytut Śląski w Opolu, Wydawnictwo Instytut Śląski, Katedra Geografii Politycznej i Studiów Regionalnych Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego.
• McGinnity F., Gijsberts M. (2015). Perceived Group Discrimination among Polish Migrants to Western Europe: Comparing Germany, the Netherlands, the UK and Ireland. ESRI Working Paper No. 502. Dublin: Economic and Social Research Institute.
• McGinnity F., Gijsberts M. (2018). The Experience of Discrimination among Newly Arrived Poles in Ireland and the Netherlands. Ethnic and Racial Studies 41(5): 919-937.
• Motomura H. (2015). The President's Dilemma: Executive Authority, Enforcement, and the Rule of Law in Immigration Law. Immigration and Nationality Law Review 36: 143-172.
• Musheno M., Maynard-Moody S. (2015). Playing the Rules: Discretion in Social and Policy Context, in: P. Hupe, M. Hill, A. Buffat (eds), Understanding Street-Level Bureaucracy, pp. 169-186. Oxford: Policy Press.
• Neuman G. L. (2005). Discretionary Deportation. Georgetown Immigration Law Journal 20(4): 611-656.
• Parmar A. (2011). Stop and Search in London: Counter-Terrorist or Counter-Productive? Policing and Society 21(4): 369-382.
• Patler C., Golash-Boza T. M. (2017). The Fiscal and Human Costs of Immigrant Detention and Deportation in the United States. Sociology Compass 11(11): e12536.
• Pazur M. (2019). Wydalenie z Niemiec. Gazeta Moje Miasto. Online: http://mm-gazeta.de/index.php/poradnik/prawo/142-wydalenie-z-niemiec (accessed: 8 May 2021).
• Pedroza J. (2019). Deportation Discretion: Tiered Influence, Minority Threat, and 'Secure Communities' Deportations. Policy Studies Journal 47(3): 624-646.
• Pratt A. (2010). Between a Hunch and a Hard Place: Making Suspicion Reasonable at the Canadian Border. Social and Legal Studies 19(4): 461-480.
• Rzepnikowska A. (2019). Racism and Xenophobia Experienced by Polish Migrants in the UK Before and After Brexit Vote. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 45(1): 61-77.
• Sassen S. (1996). Losing Control? Sovereignty in the Age of Globalization. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Sausdal D. (2018). Pleasures of Policing: An Additional Analysis of Xenophobia. Theoretical Criminology 22(2): 226-242.
• Schreier M. (2012). Qualitative Content Analysis in Practice. London, New York: Sage.
• Schuster L., Majidi N. (2013). What Happens Post-Deportation? The Experience of Deported Afghans. Migration Studies 1(2): 221-240.
• Sobczyński M. (2009). Polish-German Boundary on the Eve of the Schengen Agreement. Region and Regionalism 9(1): 155-162.
• Stumpf J. (2006). The Crimmigration Crisis: Immigrants, Crime, and Sovereign Power. American University Law Review 56(2): 367-419.
• Stumpf J. (2009). Fitting Punishment. Washington and Lee Law Review 66(4): 1683-1741.
• Sumption M., Fernandez Reino M. (2018). Exploiting the Opportunity? Low-Skilled Work Migration After Brexit. Oxford: University of Oxford, Migration Observatory.
• Szulecka M. (2016). Przejawy Nielegalnej Migracji w Polsce. Archiwum Kryminologii 38(1): 191-268.
• Szulecka M. (2019). Border Management and Migration Controls in Poland. Warsaw: Centre of Migration Research, University of Warsaw.
• Ugelvik T., Damsa D. (2018). The Pains of Crimmigration Imprisonment: Perspectives from a Norwegian All-Foreign Prison. The British Journal of Criminology 58(5): 1025-1043.
• Vaismoradi M., Turunen H., Bondas T. (2013). Content Analysis and Thematic Analysis: Implications for Conducting a Qualitative Descriptive Study. Nursing and Health Sciences 15(3): 398-405.
• van Avermaet P. (2009). Fortress Europe. Language Policy Regimes for Immigration and Citizenship, in: G. Hogan-Burn, C. Mar-Molinero, P. Stevenson (eds), Discourses on Language and Integration, pp. 15-44. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
• van de Walle R., Raaphorst N. (2019). Inspectors and Enforcement at the Front Line of Government. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
• van der Leun, J., van der Woude M. (2012). A Reflection on Crimmigration in the Netherlands: On the Cultural Security Complex and the Impact of Framing, in: M. J. Guia, M. van der Woude, J. van der Leun (eds), Social Control and Justice: Crimmigration in the Age of Fear, pp. 41-60. The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.
• van der Woude, M. A. H. (2017). Chain Reactions in Criminal Justice: Discretion and the Necessity of Interdisciplinary Research. The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.
• van der Woude M. (2019). A Patchwork of Intra-Schengen Policing: Border Games over National Identity and National Sovereignty. Theoretical Criminology 24(1): 110-131.
• van der Woude M., Barker V., van der Leun J. (2017). Crimmigration in Europe. European Journal of Criminology 14(1): 3-6.
• van der Woude M. A., Leun J. P., Nijland J. A. A. (2014). Crimmigration in the Netherlands. Law and Social Inquiry 39(3): 560-579.
• van der Woude M. A. H., van Berlo P. (2015). Crimmigration at the Internal Borders of Europe: Examining the Schengen Governance Package. Utrecht Law Review 11(1): 61-79.
• Vigh H. E., Sausdal D. B. (2014). From Essence Back to Existence: Anthropology Beyond the Ontological Turn. Anthropological Theory 14(1): 49-73.
• Vrăbiescu I. (2019). Devised to Punish: Policing, Detaining and Deporting Romanians from France. European Journal of Criminology, 3 July, doi: 10.1177/1477370819859463.
• Vrăbiescu I. (2020). Deportation, Smart Borders and Mobile Citizens: Using Digital Methods and Traditional Police Activities to Deport EU Citizens. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 29 August, doi: 10.1080/1369183X.2020.1796267.
• Vrăbiescu I. (2021). Deporting Europeans: The Racialized Mobility of Romanians in France. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield.
• Wadhia S. (2015). Beyond Deportation: The Role of Prosecutorial Discretion in Immigration Cases. New York: New York University Press.
• Walters W. (2002). Deportation, Expulsion, and the International Police of Aliens. Citizenship Studies 6(3): 265-292.
• Weber L. (2015). Deciphering Deportation Practices across the Global North, in: S. Pickering, J. Ham (eds), The Routledge Handbook on Crime and International Migration, pp. 155-178. Abingdon: Routledge.
• White A., Grabowska I., Kaczmarczyk P., Slany K. (2018). The Impact of Migration on Poland: EU Mobility and Social Change. London: UCL Press.
• Yıldız C., De Genova N. (2018). Un/Free Mobility: Roma Migrants in the European Union. Social Identities 24(4): 425-441.
• Zacka B. (2017). When the State Meets the Street: Public Service and Moral Agency. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Identyfikatory

DOI

10.17467/ceemr.2021.03