Protected Areas and Rural Livelihood: an Overview of the Mediating Role of Wildlife Tourism in Sub-Saharan Africa

• Autorzy: John T. Mgonja

Warianty tytułu

Obszary chronione i źródła utrzymania na wsi: przegląd literatury na temat pośredniczącej roli turystyki przyrodniczej w Afryce Subsaharyjskiej

• Języki publikacji: EN

Abstrakty

EN

The present article deals with problem of the conservation of protected areas, in particular the role of nature-based tourism in strengthening the relationship between protected areas and rural communities. The article draws largely on the Sustainable Livelihood Framework developed by the UK's Department for International Development in 1999. The study is mainly based on a review of the literature and documents published by major international and national organisations. It can be concluded that benefits arising from protected areas in the form of revenues from nature-based tourism tend to accrue largely to the international community, national governments and the private sector, while a large amount of conservation costs are borne by local communities living in the vicin-ity of these areas. If a significant part of revenues from tourism is not returned to local communities, they will continue to view wildlife as a threat to their livelihoods and develop resentments against conservation of protected areas.(original abstract)

Niniejszy artykuł porusza zagadnienie ochrony obszarów chronionych, a szczególnie roli turystyki przyrodniczej we wzmacnianiu relacji między obszarami chronionymi a społecznościami wiejskimi. Rozważania w dużej mierze bazują na założeniach Sustainable Livelihood Framework, opracowanej przez brytyjskie Ministerstwo ds. Rozwoju Międzynarodowego w 1999 roku. Praca opiera się głównie na przeglądzie literatury i dokumentów opublikowanych przez czołowe organizacje międzynarodowe i krajowe. Można stwierdzić, że beneficjentami korzyści płynących z istnienia obszarów chronionych w postaci dochodów z turystyki przyrodniczej są zazwyczaj przedstawiciele społeczności międzynarodowej, rządy i sektor prywatny, podczas gdy duża część kosztów ochrony ponoszona jest przez społeczności lokalne żyjące w pobliżu tych obszarów. Jeśli znaczna część dochodów z turystyki nie zostanie zwrócona społecznościom lokalnym, nadal będą one postrzegać dziką przyrodę jako zagrożenie dla swoich źródeł utrzymania i przejawiać niechęć do działań mających na celu ochronę tych obszarów.(abstrakt oryginalny)

Słowa kluczowe

EN

Tourism; Protected area; Natural environment

PL

Turystyka; Obszary chronione; Środowisko przyrodnicze

• Czasopismo: Studia Periegetica
• Rocznik: 2023
• Numer: nr 1(41)
• Strony: 4

Twórcy

autor

John T. Mgonja

• Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania

Bibliografia

• AFDB (2012). African Development. Bank Stat Flash. Tourism in Africa: Recent trends.
• Allison, E.H. (2005). Potential applications of a 'sustainable livelihoods approach' to management and policy development for European inshore fisheries. Who owns the sea, 25-43.
• Amoah, L.N.A., & Simatele, M.D. (2021). Food Security and Coping Strategies of Rural Household Livelihoods to Climate Change in the Eastern Cape of South Africa. Front. Sustain. Food Syst, 5.
• Assogba, N.P., & Zhang, D. (2022). An economic analysis of poaching: linking with village characteristics surrounding a protected area. Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 27(5), 422-435.
• Barnes, J., Burgess, J., & Pearce, D. (2019). Wildlife tourism. In Economics for the wilds (pp. 136-151). Routledge.
• Biggs, D. (2014). The development of a tourism research framework by South African National Parks to inform management. Koedoe: African Protected Area Conservation and Science, 56(2), 1-9.
• Butler, G., & Rogerson, C.M. (2016). Inclusive local tourism development in South Africa: Evidence from Dullstroom. Local Economy, 31(1-2), 264-281.
• Bwalya U.B., & Kapembwa, J. (2020). Economic benefits, local participation, and conservation ethic in a Game management area: Evidence from Mambwe, Zambia. Tropical Conservation Science, 13, 1940082920971754.
• Caetano, I.C. (2022). Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on a non-governmental organization: the case of Sabine Plattner African Charities (SPAC) and the Odzala-Kokoua National Park, Republic of Congo. Doctoral dissertation.
• Chambers, R., & Conway, G. (1992). Sustainable rural livelihoods: practical concepts for the 21st century. Institute of Development Studies Discussion Paper 296. IDS.
• Cobbinah, P.B., Black, R., & Thwaites, R. (2015). Biodiversity conservation and livelihoods in rural Ghana: Impacts and coping strategies. Environmental Development, 15, 79-93.
• Conroy, C., & Litvinoff, M. (2013). The greening of aid: Sustainable livelihoods in practice. Routledge.
• Cumming, T., Seidl, A., Emerton, L., Spenceley, A., Kroner, R.G., Uwineza, Y., & van Zyl, H. (2021). Building sustainable finance for resilient protected and conserved areas: Lessons from COVID-19. Parks, 27, 149-160.
• DFID (1999). Department for International Development. Sustainable livelihoods guidance sheets.
• DFID (2001). Department for International Development. Sustainable livelihoods guidance sheets.
• Domínguez, L., & Luoma, C. (2020). Decolonizing conservation policy: How colonial land and conservation ideologies persist and perpetuate indigenous injustices at the expense of the environment. Land, 9(3), 65.
• Duffy, R. (2001). Killing for Conservation. Wildlife Policy in Zimbabwe. Indiana University Press.
• Ellis, F. (2000). Rural livelihoods and diversity in developing countries. Oxford University Press.
• Fisher, B., & Christopher, T. (2007). Poverty and biodiversity: measuring the overlap of human poverty and the biodiversity hotspots. Ecological economics, 62(1), 93-101.
• Goodman, R. (2002). Pastoral livelihoods in Tanzania: Can the Maasai benefit from conservation?. Current Issues in Tourism, 5(3-4), 280-286.
• Gow, D.D. (1992). Poverty and natural resources: principles for environmental management and sustainable development. Environmental impact assessment review, 12(1), 49-65.
• Hariohay, K.M., Fyumagwa, R.D., Kideghesho, J.R., & Røskaft, E. (2018). Awareness and attitudes of local people toward wildlife conservation in the Rungwa Game Reserve in Central Tanzania. Human dimensions of wildlife, 23(6), 503-514.
• Harrison, D. (1988). The sociology of modernization and development. Routledge.
• IUCN (2003). "Sustainable livelihoods". Media Brief for the World Parks Congress.
• IUCN (2012). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. https://www.iucnredlist.org/spe-cies/6557/152728945 (2022.07.22).
• Kaltenborn, B.P., Nyahongo, J.W., Kidegesho, J.R., & Haaland, H. (2008). Serengeti National Park and its neighbours-Do they interact?. Journal for Nature Conservation, 16(2), 96-108.
• Kates, R.W. (2000). Cautionary tales: adaptation and the global poor. Climate Change, 45, 5-17.
• Kideghesho, J.R. (2008a). Co-existence between the traditional societies and wildlife in western Serengeti, Tanzania: its relevancy in contemporary wildlife conservation efforts. Biodiversity and Conservation, 17(8), 1861-1881.
• Kideghesho, J.R. (2008b). Who pays for wildlife conservation in Tanzania and who benefits?. In 12th Biennal Conference of the International Association of the Study of the Commons (pp. 14-18). University of Gloucestershire.
• Kideghesho, J.R. (2016a). The elephant poaching crisis in Tanzania: a need to reverse the trend and the way forward. Tropical Conservation Science, 9(1), 369-388.
• Kideghesho, J.R. (2016b). Reversing the trend of wildlife crime in Tanzania: challenges and opportunities. Biodiversity and Conservation, 25(3), 427-449.
• Kideghesho, J.R. (2019). The contribution of research in combating wildlife poaching in Tanzania: Review of existing literature. Natural resources management and biological sciences, 316-333.
• Knapp, E.J. (2012). Why poaching pays: a summary of risks and benefits illegal hunters face in Western Serengeti, Tanzania. Tropical Conservation Science, 5(4), 434-445.
• Kunjuraman, V. (2022). A revised sustainable livelihood framework for community-based tourism projects in developing countries. Current Issues in Tourism, 1-6.
• Kyara, V.C., Rahman, M.M., & Khanam, R. (2021). Tourism expansion and economic growth in Tanzania: A causality analysis. Heliyon, 7(5), e06966.
• Leverington, F., Costa, K.L., Pavese, H., Lisle, A., & Hockings, M. (2010). A global analysis of protected area management effectiveness. Environmental management, 46(5), 685-698.
• Lisocka-Jaegermann, B. (2015). Sustainable rural development or (sustainable) rural livelihoods? Strategies for the 21st Century in peripheral regions. Barometr Regionalny. Analizy i Prognozy, 1, 13-20.
• Lopes, A.A. (2014). Civil unrest and the poaching of rhinos in the Kaziranga National Park, India. Ecological Economics, 103, 20-28.
• Manyara, G., & Jones, E. (2007). Community-based enterprise development in Kenya: An exploration of their potential as avenues of poverty reduction. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 15(6), 628-644.
• Mbaiwa, J.E. (2005). Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Bot-swana. Tourism Management, 26(2), 157-172.
• Mbaiwa, J.E. (2015). Community-based natural resource management in Botswana. Institutional arrangements for conservation, development and tourism in Eastern and Southern Africa: A dynamic perspective, 59-80.
• Mbaiwa, J.E. (2017). Poverty or riches: Who benefits from the booming tourism industry in Botswana?. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 35(1), 93-112.
• Mbaiwa, J.E. (2018). Effects of the safari hunting tourism ban on rural livelihoods and wildlife conservation in Northern Botswana. South African Geographical Journal, 100(1), 41-61.
• Mbaiwa, J.E. (2021). Economic development, tourism and conservation in developing countries. In J. Saarinen & J.M. Rogerson (Eds.), Tourism, Change and the Global South (pp. 187-204). Routledge.
• Mbaiwa, J.E., & Mogende, E. (2022). Lifting of the hunting ban and the elephant debate in Botswana. Protected Areas and Tourism in Southern Africa: Conservation Goals and Community Livelihoods, 131.
• Mbaiwa, J.E., Mbaiwa, T., & Siphambe, G. (2019). The community-based natural resource management programme in southern Africa-promise or peril? The case of Botswana. In Positive tourism in Africa (pp. 11-22). Routledge.
• McCabe, J.T. (2003). Sustainability and livelihood diversification among the Maasai of northern Tanzania. Human Organization, 62(2), 100-111.
• McSweeney, K. (2004). Forest product sale as natural insurance: the effects of household characteristics and the nature of shock in eastern Honduras. Society and Natural Resources, 17(1), 39-56.
• Mendenhall, C.D., Daily, G.C., & Ehrlich, P.R. (2012). Improving estimates of biodiversity loss. Biological Conservation, 151(1), 32-34.
• Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being: a framework for assessment. Island Press.
• Mistry, J. (2014). Natural resource management: A critical appraisal. In The Companion to Development Studies (pp. 383-386). Routledge.
• Mukasa, N. (2014). The Batwa indigenous people of Uganda and their traditional forest land: Eviction, non-collaboration and unfulfilled needs. Indigenous Policy Journal, 24(4).
• Nelson, F. (2012). Blessing or curse? The political economy of tourism development in Tanzania. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20(3), 359-375.
• Neumann, R.P. (1992). Political ecology of wildlife conservation in the Mt. Meru area of North East Tanzania. Land Degradation and Rehabilitation, 3, 99-113.
• Okumu, B., & Muchapondwa, E. (2020). Welfare and forest cover impacts of incentive based conservation: Evidence from Kenyan community forest associations. World Development, 129, 104890.
• Oldekop, J.A., Holmes, G., Harris, W.E., & Evans, K.L. (2016). A global assessment of the social and conservation outcomes of protected areas. Conservation Biology, 30(1), 133-141.
• Oliver, T.H., & Morecroft, M.D. (2014). Interactions between climate change and land use change on biodiversity: attribution problems, risks, and opportunities. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 5(3), 317-335.
• Ramesh, T., Kalle, R., Rosenlund, H., & Downs, C.T. (2017). Low leopard populations in protected areas of Maputaland: a consequence of poaching, habitat condition, abundance of prey, and a top predator. Ecology and evolution, 7(6), 1964-1973.
• Roe, D., Ashley, C., Page, S., & Meyer, D. (2004). Tourism and the poor: analysing and interpreting tourism statistics from a poverty perspective. ODI working paper 16.
• Rylance, A. (2012). Local economic development in Mozambique: an assessment of the implementation of tourism policy as a means to promote local economies. In A. Spenceley (Ed.), Responsible tourism (pp. 55-68). Routledge.
• Rylance, A. (2017). Estimating tourism's contribution to conservation area financing in Mozambique. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 17(1), 24-33.
• Rylance, A., & Spenceley, A. (2013). Living outside the fence: Opportunities for neighbouring communities to supply products and services to the Sabi Sand Game Reserve, South Africa. African Journal for Physical Health Education, Recreation and Dance, 19(sup-3), 294-308.
• Rylance, A., & Spenceley, A. (2016). Applying inclusive business approaches to nature-based tourism in Namibia and South Africa. Tourism: An International Interdisciplinary Journal, 64(4), 371-383.
• Rylance, A., Snyman, S., & Spenceley, A. (2017). The contribution of tourism revenue to financing protected area management in Southern Africa. Tourism Review International, 21(2), 139-149.
• Saarinen, J., Moswete, N.N., & Lubbe, B. (2022). Sustainable Tourism Development Needs in the Southern African Context: Concluding Remarks. In Southern African Perspectives on Sustainable Tourism Management: Tourism and Changing Localities (pp. 215-219). Springer International Publishing.
• Schilcher, D. (2007). Growth versus equity: The continuum of pro-poor tourism and neoliberal governance. Current Issues in Tourism, 10(2-3), 166-193.
• Sekhar N. (2003). Local people's attitudes towards conservation and wildlife tourism around Sariska Tiger Reserve, India. Journal of Environmental Management, 69, 339-347.
• Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. Oxford University Press.
• Serrat, O., & Serrat, O. (2017). The sustainable livelihoods approach. Knowledge solutions: Tools, methods, and approaches to drive organizational performance, 21-26.
• Sharma, G.D., Thomas, A., & Paul, J. (2021). Reviving tourism industry post-COVID-19: A resilience-based framework. Tourism management perspectives, 37, 100786.
• Sharpley, R. (2009). Tourism development and the environment: Beyond sustainability?. Earthscan.
• Sindiga, I. (2018). Tourism and African development: Change and challenge of tourism in Kenya. Routledge.
• Snyman, S.L. (2012). The role of tourism employment in poverty reduction and community perceptions of conservation and tourism in southern Africa. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20(3), 395-416.
• Snyman, S.L. (2017). The role of tourism employment in poverty reduction and community perceptions of conservation and tourism in southern Africa. In Tourism and Poverty Reduction (pp. 145-166). Routledge.
• Snyman, S., & Bricker, K.S. (2019). Living on the edge: Benefit-sharing from protected area tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 27(6), 705-719.
• Snyman, S., & Spenceley, A. (2019). Joint venture lodge ownership partnership options. In Private sector tourism in conservation areas in Africa (pp. 94-145). CAB International.
• Spenceley, A., & Barnes, J. (2005). Economic Analysis of Rhino Conservation in a Land-use Context within the SADC Region. CREDITS: SADC RPRC Task 6.3-1.2 (Phase II).
• Spenceley, A., & Meyer, D. (2012). Tourism and poverty reduction: Theory and practice in less economically developed countries. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20(3), 297-317.
• Spenceley, A., & Rylance, A. (2019). The contribution of tourism to achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. A research agenda for sustainable tourism, 107-125.
• Spenceley, A., & Snyman, S. (2017). Can a wildlife tourism company influence conservation and the development of tourism in a specific destination? Tourism and hospitality research, 17(1), 52-67.
• Spenceley, A., Habyalimana, S., Tusabe, R., & Mariza, D. (2010). Benefits to the poor from gorilla tourism in Rwanda. Development Southern Africa, 27(5), 647-662.
• Spenceley, A., McCool, S., Newsome, D., Báez, A., Barborak, J.R., Blye, C.J., ... & Zschiegner, A.K. (2021). Tourism in protected and conserved areas amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Parks, (27), 103-118.
• Spenceley, A., Snyman, S., & Rylance, A. (2019). Revenue sharing from tourism in terrestrial African protected areas. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 27(6), 720-734.
• Spiteri, A., & Nepalz, S.K. (2006). Incentive-based conservation programs in developing countries: a review of some key issues and suggestions for improvements. Environmental Management, 37(1), 1-14.
• Steven, R., Castley, J.G., & Buckley, R. (2013). Tourism revenue as a conservation tool for threatened birds in protected areas. PloS one, 8(5), e62598.
• Sunderlin, W.D., Angelsen, A., Belcher, B., Burgers, P., Nasi, R., Santoso, L., & Wunder, S. (2005). Livelihoods, forests, and conservation in developing countries: an overview. World development, 33(9), 1383-1402.
• Sunderlin, W.D., Dewi, S., & Puntodewo, A. (2007). Poverty and forests: multi-country analysis of spatial association and proposed policy solutions. CIFOR Occasional Paper 47.
• Sustainable Tourism Concepts (n.d.). Is There a Demand for Sustainable Tourism? Demand for tourism world-wide. https://nmssanctuaries.blob.core.windows.net/sanctuaries-prod/media/archive/ management/international/pdfs/day1_concepts_manual.pdf (2023.03.08).
• TANAPA. (2012). Tanzania National Parks, the official site of the Tanzania National Parks. https:// www.tanzaniaparks.go.tz/pages/history. (2022.04.20).
• TANAPA. (2022). Tanzania National Parks Authority. National parks. https://www.tanzaniaparks. go.tz/ (2022.09.20).
• Terborgh J., Peres C. (2002). The problem of people in parks. In J. Terborgh, C. Van Schaik, L. Davenport, & M. Rao (Eds.), Making parks work: strategies for preserving tropical nature (pp. 307-319). Island Press.
• Thomas, A. (2000). 'Meaning and views of development'. In T. Allen, & A. Thomas (Eds.), Poverty and development into the 21st century (pp. 23-48). Oxford University Press.
• Thomas, D.S., & Twyman, C. (2005). Equity and justice in climate change adaptation amongst natural-resource-dependent societies. Global Environmental Change, 15(2), 115-124.
• Tilman, D., & Downing, J.A. (1994). Biodiversity and stability in grasslands. Nature, 367, 363-365.
• Turner, S. (2013). Community-based natural resource management and rural livelihoods. In Rights Resources and Rural Development (pp. 59-80). Routledge.
• Uddhammar, E. (2006). Development, conservation and tourism: conflict or symbiosis?. Review of International Political Economy, 13(4), 656-678.
• Ulfstrand, S. (2002). Savannah Lives: Animal Life and Human Evolution in Africa. Oxford University Press.
• UNWTO (n.d.). Ecotourism and protected areas. https://www.unwto.org/sustainable-development/ ecotourism-and-protected-areas (2022.09.20).
• URT (1994). National polices for national parks in Tanzania. Tanzania National Parks National Policy Committee.
• Verma, A.K., & Sadguru, P. (2022). Anthropogenic activities and Biodiversity threats. IJBI, 4(1).
• Vidal, J. (2016). The tribes paying the brutal price of conservation. The Guardian, 28.
• Wamboye, E.F., Nyaronga, P.J., & Sergi, B.S. (2020). What are the determinants of international tourism in Tanzania?. World Development Perspectives, 17, 100175.
• Whitelaw, P.A., King, B.E., & Tolkach, D. (2014). Protected areas, conservation and tourism-financing the sustainable dream. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(4), 584-603.
• Wilson, K.H. (2017). Spiritual tourism as the new colonialism: the maintenance of colonial hierarchy in Cusco, Peru. University of Missouri-Columbia.
• Wordpress (n.d). Karibu Tanzania National Parks. Community Conservation Service. https://tanzaniaparksblog.wordpress.com/about/ (2023.03.08)
• World Bank (2000). Can Africa claim the 21st century?
• World Bank (2021). International Tourism, Receipts Data. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ ST.INT.RCPT.XP.ZS (2022.09.19).
• WTTC (2022). Annual Research: Key Highlights, Tanzania. https://wttc.org/DesktopModules/MVC/ FactSheets/pdf/704/218_20220613171254_Tanzania2022_.pdf (2023.03.08).
• Wunder, S. (2001). Poverty alleviation and tropical forests - what scope for synergies?. World Development, 29(11), 1817-1833.

Identyfikatory

DOI

10.58683/sp.345